From: Non-invasive control interfaces for intention detection in active movement-assistive devices
Human system | Physiological phenomena | Signal | Sensor | Transduction principle | Interface with body | Application | Key reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 |  | Electric current | EEG | Electrode | - | Skin contact | C/P/O/E | |
 |  |  | MEG | MEG machine | Induction | No contact | C/O | |
Controller | Brain activity | Hemodynamics | fMRI | MRI machine | Induction | No contact | C/E | |
 |  |  | NIRS | Spectrometer | Photoelectric | Near-infrared illumination of the brain | C/E | |
 | Muscle activation | Electric current | EMG | Electrode | - | Skin contact | O/P/E | |
 |  |  |  |  |  | Targeted muscle reinnervation* | P | |
 |  | Vibration | MMG | Microphone | Induction Piezoelectric | Skin contact | P | |
 |  |  |  | Accelerometer | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | P | |
 |  |  |  | Hall-effect sensor | Induction | Magnet on the skin | P | |
 |  |  | MK | Pneumatic sensor | Resistive Capacitive | Skin contact | P | |
Actuators | Muscle contraction | Dimensional change | Â | Encoder | Photoelectric | Skin contact | O | [37] |
 |  |  | SMG | Ultrasound scanner | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | P | |
 |  |  | Electric impedance | Electrode | - | Electric current to skin | P | [41] |
 |  | Radial force and stiffness | MT/MK | Force-sensitive resistor | Resistive | Skin contact | O/P | |
 |  |  |  | Piezoelectric transducer | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | O/P | [45] |
 |  | Force | Deformation | Strain gauges | Resistive | Tunnel muscle cineplasty* | P | [46] |
 |  | Hemodynamics | NIRS | Spectrometer | Photoelectric | Near-infrared illumination of the muscle | P | |
 |  | Body segment movement | Body segment movement | IMU | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | P/O | |
 | Movement |  |  | Camera | Photoelectric | No contact | E | [53] |
 | Relative joint movement | Joint rotations | Goniometer | Potentiometer | Resistive | Skin contact | P/O | |
Plant | Â | Â | Â | Bending sensor | Resistive | Skin contact | P/O | [58] |
 |  |  |  | Encoder | Photoelectric | Skin contact/No contact | P/O | [59] |
 | Force/Pressure | Deformation | Force/Torque sensor (strain gauges) | Resistive | No contact | P/O/E | ||
 |  |  |  | Pressure sensor (force-sensitive resistor) | Resistive | Skin contact | P/O/E | |
 | Eye movement | Corneal reflection | Video camera | Photoelectric | Near-infrared illumination of the cornea | P/E | [67] | |
 |  |  | EOG | Electrode | - | Skin contact | P/E | |
 |  |  | Accelerometer | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | E | ||
 | Head movement | Inclination | Video camera | Photoelectric | No contact | E | [73] | |
Parallel systems | Â | Â | Â | Ultrasonic sensor | Piezoelectric | Skin contact | E | [74] |
 | Tongue movement | Contact with palate/Movement | Induction coil | Induction | Ferromagnetic material at the tip of the tongue | E/C | ||
 | Speech | Sound | Microphone | Induction Piezoelectric | No contact | P/E | ||
 | Hand movement | Angle | Joystick (potentiometers) | Resistive | Skin contact | O/E |