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Table 1 Stratified inventory of non-invasive control interfaces used for motion intention detection in active movement-assistive devices

From: Non-invasive control interfaces for intention detection in active movement-assistive devices

Human system

Physiological phenomena

Signal

Sensor

Transduction principle

Interface with body

Application

Key reference

  

Electric current

EEG

Electrode

-

Skin contact

C/P/O/E

[9–14]

   

MEG

MEG machine

Induction

No contact

C/O

[15, 16]

Controller

Brain activity

Hemodynamics

fMRI

MRI machine

Induction

No contact

C/E

[17, 18]

   

NIRS

Spectrometer

Photoelectric

Near-infrared illumination of the brain

C/E

[19, 20]

 

Muscle activation

Electric current

EMG

Electrode

-

Skin contact

O/P/E

[21–24]

      

Targeted muscle reinnervation*

P

[25–27]

  

Vibration

MMG

Microphone

Induction Piezoelectric

Skin contact

P

[28–31]

    

Accelerometer

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

P

[30–32]

    

Hall-effect sensor

Induction

Magnet on the skin

P

[33, 34]

   

MK

Pneumatic sensor

Resistive Capacitive

Skin contact

P

[35, 36]

Actuators

Muscle contraction

Dimensional change

 

Encoder

Photoelectric

Skin contact

O

[37]

   

SMG

Ultrasound scanner

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

P

[38–40]

   

Electric impedance

Electrode

-

Electric current to skin

P

[41]

  

Radial force and stiffness

MT/MK

Force-sensitive resistor

Resistive

Skin contact

O/P

[42–44]

    

Piezoelectric transducer

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

O/P

[45]

  

Force

Deformation

Strain gauges

Resistive

Tunnel muscle cineplasty*

P

[46]

  

Hemodynamics

NIRS

Spectrometer

Photoelectric

Near-infrared illumination of the muscle

P

[47–50]

  

Body segment movement

Body segment movement

IMU

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

P/O

[51, 52]

 

Movement

  

Camera

Photoelectric

No contact

E

[53]

 

Relative joint movement

Joint rotations

Goniometer

Potentiometer

Resistive

Skin contact

P/O

[54–57]

Plant

   

Bending sensor

Resistive

Skin contact

P/O

[58]

    

Encoder

Photoelectric

Skin contact/No contact

P/O

[59]

 

Force/Pressure

Deformation

Force/Torque sensor (strain gauges)

Resistive

No contact

P/O/E

[60–62]

    

Pressure sensor (force-sensitive resistor)

Resistive

Skin contact

P/O/E

[56, 63–66]

 

Eye movement

Corneal reflection

Video camera

Photoelectric

Near-infrared illumination of the cornea

P/E

[67]

   

EOG

Electrode

-

Skin contact

P/E

[68, 69]

   

Accelerometer

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

E

[70–72]

 

Head movement

Inclination

Video camera

Photoelectric

No contact

E

[73]

Parallel systems

   

Ultrasonic sensor

Piezoelectric

Skin contact

E

[74]

 

Tongue movement

Contact with palate/Movement

Induction coil

Induction

Ferromagnetic material at the tip of the tongue

E/C

[75–77]

 

Speech

Sound

Microphone

Induction Piezoelectric

No contact

P/E

[78–80]

 

Hand movement

Angle

Joystick (potentiometers)

Resistive

Skin contact

O/E

[81–83]

  1. C: communication; P: prosthesis; O: orthosis; E: external devices; (*) indicates one-time invasive method.